In 1887 German educator Hauskenecht (1853-1927), who introduced the educational theories of Herbart (1776-1841), visited Japan at the invitation of the Ministry of Education and lectured on education and the German language at the Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo) from 1887 through 1890. Herbart's educational ideas were based squarely on his philosophical and psychological beliefs. The principal aim of education was to inculcate morality. Moral character was cultivated through a many-sided interests, from which the learner gained a world view and chose examples to be accepted or rejected. Herbart's teaching method was built around his apperception theory: each important idea was brought into focus and strengthened by deliberate association with related ideas (as cited in Hall, 1990). In the 1890's Herbart's educational theory was the dominant theory in Japanese education.
In 1889 the curriculum for secondary-school teacher training was established in accordance with Hauskenecht's proposals and under his guidance. Among his students were many leading educators of the Meiji and Taisho periods, including Tanimoto (1867-1946). Tanimoto was first an advocate of Herbart's theory, but later rejected Herbart's ideas, which focused on the individual, and advocated education for the benefit of the state. Herbart's influence on twentieth-century American education was also great. Bigge (1982) stated that although his theory was developed early in the nineteenth-century, it did not reach the United States until the 1880s, when four young Americans (DeGarmo, McMurry, McMurry, and Liew) studied at the University of Jena and returned to the United States to spread Herbartian doctrine with religious fervor. "Like a tidal wave, interest in this elaborate system swept over American teachers and students of education during the nineties" (Eby & Arrowood, 1934, p. 786).
During the Taisho period, however, Tanimoto again shifted his stance to one favoring education for the sake of the individual as Herbart had proposed and became one of the leaders of the Shin Kyoiku Undo[Progressive Education Movement] in Japan. Tanimoto applied Herbartian methodology to the teaching of song education and emphasized that: (a) song education was important to cultivate a child's sense of morals, (b) a child's interest and teaching materials should be united, and (c) the teaching process should include three steps: preparation, teaching, and exercise. This teaching method was welcomed, especially in primary education.
Another educational leader, Higuchi, was influenced by Parker's educational theory, Togoshugi Shin Kyojuho[The Integrated New Teaching Method]. Parker (1837-1902), an American educator, was a leader in progressive education. He advocated informal methods of instruction and a relaxed social atmosphere in American classrooms, where rigid teaching techniques and inflexible disciplinary practices were the rule. Parker was influenced by Herbart and Froebel. In 1899 Parker founded and was the first principal of his own normal school, the Chicago Institute, which later became the University of Chicago's School of Education, with Parker as its first director. Higuchi (1898) described Parker's theory and focused on three points concerning music education:
1. Music education has an aspect of emotion. Its educational value is never inferior to other subjects.
2. Japanese education historically tends to look down on emotion. However, emotion is the foundation of ethics. The motive for an act always arises from emotion. Therefore, if Japanese educators want to cultivate virtuous people, it is very important to develop emotion.
3. Music is an appropriate subject to stimulate emotion.
Higuchi also pointed out that the words of the songs in existing songbooks were difficult for children, and that mechanical scale practice and score reading that did not value emotion were taught. He warned against the perfunctory characteristics of teaching practices of the time.
From the later stages of the Meiji period to the Taish™ period, song-teaching methods were discussed by music educators. For example, the song-teaching methods such as Kusakawa's
tosei-hassei [head voice- singing], Tamura's jakusei-hassei [soft voice-singing], and Funabashi's shizenteki hassei [natural voice-singing] were subjects of discussion (Inoue, 1967).
From the 1910s to the 1930s, as Western liberalism swept Japan, popular movements developed to make music more child-centered. This period is generally known as the time of "Taisho democracy." This term was coined by Japanese historians after World War II to refer to the democratic ideals, practices, and movements of early twentieth-century Japan. The term implies a contrast to the less democratic Meiji period, the militaristic 1930s, and post-World War II democracy. The Taish™ period also brought a new wave of liberalizing ideas and ways from the West.
Criticism of the music curriculum centered on the lyrics of the shoka, which had been composed during the Meiji period, and were written by Confucian poets in a complex, classical style; they were highly moralistic, representing love for nation, emperor, parents and nature.
Behind the transition from the Meiji to the Taisho period lay great economic growth and social and intellectual development.
Japan fought China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905. Both victories put Japan among the world powers. The Sino-Japanese War saw Education Minister Inoue (1844-1895) much perplexed by the poor quality of technical education, and he became as a consequence responsible for the Imperial Rescript on Education. He recognized world competition as mainly economic, not military, and concluded that Japan had a wealth of good generals in industry, but not enough corporals and sergeants.
During the Taisho period geijutsu kyoiku shiso[art education thought] was introduced by Konishi (1875-1948), then professor of education at Kyoto Imperial University, which influenced Japanese arts educators. During this period the Dalton Plan was also introduced (Hamada, 1978, p. 43). Music became widely popular as a result of the influence of the phonograph and radio broadcasting. The phonograph was brought from the United States by Mutsu (1844-1897), the Japanese Ambassador to the United States, in 1886. Radio broadcasting began in 1925, the predecessor of the present NHK [Nippon Hoso Kyokai, Japan Broadcasting Corporation].
After World War I, criticism of the shoka and shoka kyoiku [education] was aroused among literary men and poets. This movement was called doyo undo[the children's song movement].
In Taisho 7 (1918), the magazine for children Akai Tori [Red Bird] was published by Suzuki (1882-1936), novelist and writer of children's stories. Fujita (1984) reported Suzuki's role in the doyo undo.
The Akai Tori Doyo Shu[Red Bird Song Books] (1917) signaled the climax of the doyo movement. The Akai Tori Doyo Shu included 46 songs with libretti by Kitahara, Saijo and Noguchi, with music composed by Narita, Hirota, and Kusakawa.
Among the advocates of a more child-centered approach to music education was Kitahara, a versatile poet recognized for his modern poetry and an influential figure in poetry circles during the early twentieth century. He cited traditional Japanese children's songs as a suitable model for the development of new lyrics and melodies more appropriate for Japanese children. Poets Kitahara and Saijo and composers Hirota, Narita, and Kusakawa supported the doyo movement. "Kanariya" [Canary]--words and music by Saijo and Hirota, respectively--was the first song with the title of a children's song. This song was favorably received because it had a different song style with a message expressed in plain language which was suited to children's emotional and intellectual development.
Doyo were characterized by the use of chromatic progression, which distinguished these songs. This movement was a major turning point for music education. Many poets, composers, and music educators had a deep concern for children's songs. Therefore many songs such as "Kutsu ga Naru" [The Sound of Shoes] and "Suzume no Gakko [The School of Sparrows] were written. These songs were influenced by Western music, as illustrated by the use of major or minor keys. Thus, the Taish™ period was a developmental, liberal time in music, in line with Taish™ democracy. In addition to song education, music appreciation was also advocated during this time.
School opera also began at this time. The popularization of the phonograph and the beginning of radio broadcasting accelerated listening education. A similar movement to reform the art education curriculum was led by Yamamoto. This movement was described as the Taisho jiyuga kyoiku undo[Free-Expression picture movement]. Its primary objective was to provide students with greater opportunity for creative initiative and self-expression. During the Taish™ period, the theory of "eurhythmics," created by Swiss musician Dalcroze (1865-1950), was introduced to Japan. His approach, like that of the Italian physician and educator Montessori (1870-1952), was unique for his time. Dalcroze also believed that the early years of a child's life are especially important for developing basic skills and perceptions. There was much discussion of Dalcroze's method and its place in Japanese general music education. The government did not implement the method in public schools, but a few advocates used it in private institutions.
The art-education movement originated in Germany in the late nineteenth century. Lange (1885-1921) and Lichtwark (1852-1914) were primary contributors to the movement, whose main policy was to promote aesthetic understanding and awareness in the people and to facilitate the understanding of art works. In addition, the art-education movement was closely related to the Shin Kyoiku Undo[New-Education Movement]. The basic idea of the movement was not teacher- but child-centered.
This early twentieth-century educational movement emphasized the individuality and initiative of the student. It was in opposition to the standardized education of the nationally controlled school system of the time. The principles and methods espoused by the Japanese movement were those of the European and American Progressive Education Movement.
The need for such a movement in Japan was suggested, as stated above, by Tanimoto and Oikawa. Oikawa adopted group-education methods based on the German Gruppenuntericht [Group Studies] at the elementary school attached to Akashi Zyoshi Shihan Gakk™ [Women's Normal School]. Private schools such as Sawayanagi's Seizyo Elementary School, Hani's Jiyu Gakuen, Akai's Myojo Gakuen, and Obara's Tamagawa Gakuen practiced Shin Kyoiku [New-Education] in their basic teaching policy.
In 1919, Dewey (1859-1952) visited Japan and introduced his educational theories to Japanese progressive educators. His visit to Japan was related to the Taish™ democracy. At that time the term "democracy" was used among advanced people in Japan. Dewey left Japan in the same year, and lectured on "Democracy and Education" at the invitation of the University of Beijing (Igasaki & Matsushima, 1990, p. 105). It was not until after World War II that Dewey's philosophical and educational principles were understood and Japanese educators were inspired by his theories.
